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A wheel is part of a car

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In relations between words similar to meronymy, called meronym-like, or quasi-meronymical, only one of the criteria may be used. Thus, it is impossible to say

*A husband is a part of a woman or

*Being a mother has changing diapers.

Quasi-meronymical relations that can be described with only one of the frames, often occur between non-concrete entities as in France - Europe (France is part of Europe but not *Europe has France).

The third very specific type of hierarchical relationship is serial but it can hardly be called inclusion. Serial sense relations have variations - graded and cyclical series. The commonest example of a graded series is military ranks (Private, Lance Corporal,

Corporal, Sergeant, Staff Sergeant, Warrant Officer 2nd Class, Warrant Officer Is1 Class, 2"rf Lieutenant, Lieutenant, Captain, Major, Lieutenant-Colonel, Colonel, Brigadier, Major-General, Lieutenant-General, General, Field Marshal - are military ranks in the British Army). Another example is an open number system as in one, two, three .... The best example of cyclical serial relations between lexemes, which, in contrast to graded series, are not open-ended, are seasons of the year (winter, spring, summer, autumn) or days of the week which repeat as soon as they end.

2. Alongside hierarchical relations between words, relations of compatibility - partial semantic overlapping of units on the same level of abstraction - are also considered to be the chief type of paradigmatic relations.

There are three major types of semantic relations of compatibility between words, they are a) synonymy, b) antonymy, c) incompatibility. All of them are based on some common semantic features, some 'sameness' of word meanings, while their other features do not clash. No inclusion is observed; words are on the same hierarchical level.

a) Synonymy is the most obvious type of compatibility. Synonymy presupposes a certain identity. If X is Z then Z is X, that is, for example, if eyeglasses are spectacles then spectacles are eyeglasses. To symbolize words' mutual and symmetric implication of the words we may use the sign of similarity ~ and state that eyeglasses ~ spectacles. Yet many scholars point out that words rarely are 100 per cent similar and interchangeable. Words may share the basic componential features but be different along other lines.

b) Antonymy is a relation of semantic opposition that can be symbolized with the double-headed arrow <-». The term 'opposition' is rather vague. It includes reversible relationship of words (husband-^wife, buy*-+sell), directional opposition (come<-*go, arrive^depart), or complementary relationship (alive*~*dead, male^>female). The most typical autonomy is observed in cases of polar opposition (cold<->hot, big+->small).

c) Incompatibility (96) is the relation of mutual exclusiveness of a set of co- hyponyms - words under the same hyperonym, or co-meronyms - words under the same meronym. The words denoting the same whole but are neither synonyms nor antonyms. For example, the words cat^dogfilion^elephant within the major superordinate animal, or words denoting sister-parts of a whole like bathroom, bedroom, kitchen, sitting room, stairs, porch denoting different parts of a house are mutually exclusive, or incompatible.

So far we have discussed the basic primitive, or primary paradigmatic sense relations. More distant paradigmatic relations, derived by logical inference, occur between such words as horse and oat, tea and kettle.

It should be stressed that one and the same word may demonstrate different types of relations of hierarchy and compatibility towards different words in the lexicon as demonstrated with the word eyeglasses, which is as a node in a word-net

 

 

,All these types of semantic relationship of words provide the basis for uniting them into various lexical-semantic groups and groupings.

3. Structure of the English lexicon] |

When semantically coherent words express their sense relations syntagmatically they contract collocations — word groups of different degree of stability and idiomaticity: a dog barks/bites/sits', a maiden voyage/flight/speech; castle in the air (see also Chapter 6).,

Words that have indirect sense relations and occur in one sentence or situation though not

necessarily in the form of a collocation make up a thematic group (kill, die, murderer,

crime; cinema, film, to be on, screen, cinema goer).

Of special interest for understanding the lexicon structure are groups of words that have { common semantic components on the paradigmatic level and display the sense relations ' I of hierarchy, compatibility or both

I. Groups of words based on one type of semantic relations

The most obvious lexical-semantic groups in the lexicon include words that are the closest in semantic space, and are either similar or opposite m meaning. They are synonyms and antonyms.

1. Synonyms

The term 'synonym' comes from Greek and means 'having the same name'. One of the standard definitions of synonyms is that they are words of the same part of speech, different m their sound-form, but similar in their denotational meaning and interchangeable at least in some context. Words entertainment and amusement are synonyms though only amusement park will be a correct collocation in English. Win is similar to gain though they say to gain his friendship, but to win a victory. The so-called 'perfect synonyms', words with identical meanings that can substitute each other in all contexts, are very rare, otherwise they would have created unnecessary redundancy of lexical means and violated the leading language principle of economy.

 

Synonymy is a relation between words rather than concepts. That is why synonyms may stand for the same concept but be different in stylistic register (happen and befall, insane and barmy), or in dialectal variation (autumn and fall), emotional colouring and a slight difference in the degree or size of the concept (idea) (big and gigantic) or in collocational restrictions (rancid and rotten; to embellish, to garnish, to adorn, to decorate) and accordingly be stylistic, ideographic or collocational synonyms.

English is extremely rich in synonyms. This is partially due to an abundance of borrowings, especially from French and Latin. A characteristic synonymic set in English is a pair of words, one of which is native, and the other is French, Latin or Greek (brotherly ~ fraternal; bodily ~ corporal; buy ~ purchase, near ~ close). Sometimes there is a triple set of synonyms: begin (OE) ~ commence (Fr) ~ initiate (L).

One should also be aware that since synonymical relations are observed on the level of minimal naming units, in case the word is polysemantic, each of its senses may have its own synonym. Thus, the noun beam in the meaning of 'a long piece of heavy timber suitable for use in construction' has synonyms plank, board, rafter, joist but its lexical-semantic variant 'a shaft of light' has synonyms ray, streak, flash, and gleam.

2. Antonyms

Another important group of words based on compatibility of some semantic features and oppositeness of others are antonyms [Gk anti 'against', onoma 'a name'l.

Antonyms are typically found in the class of adjectives and occur in antonimous pairs (good «-» bad, light <-> dark). Though antonyms are not as pervasive in the English lexicon as synonyms, they are important for its structuring.

Since there are different types of opposition in a language (polar opposition cold<-+hot, reversible relationship. buy*-+sell, directional opposition, arrive^+depart, complementary relationship alive<-*dead, and some others), there are different groups of antonyms, too.

There are gradable antonyms like cold <-> hot, dry <-» wet that make comparison (colder, hotter; drier, wetter) and other adjectives may be placed on the scale between their poles (cold <-> warm <-> hot; dry <-> moist <-> wet). They occur in the system of adjectives and the adverbs derived from them. One of the members of the pair of gradable antonyms is marked and the other is unmarked. When the quality is not identified we use an unmarked member: How far is the city? How long is the road? If the city is identified as close and the road as short, then we use the marked member: How close is the city? and How short is the road?

There are complementary (sometimes they are called contradictory) antonyms like alive <-> dead, single <-> married, life <-» death, on «-> off, remember <-> forget, go <-* stay that are mutually exclusive although the complement each other. These antonyms are in an either/or kind of opposition.

 

There are also two-way conversive antonyms that are mutually dependent and describe opposite attributes of the same situation (buy and sell, above and below, child and parent). Each of these antonyms may express the converse meaning of the other: John is Mark's son and Mark is John 'sparent.

English can derive antonyms morphologically by means of prefixes and suffixes (honest «-> dishonest, encourage <-> discourage, include <-» exclude, useful <-> useless, hopeful <-> hopeless).

So, antonyms are words that are different in their sound-form, characterized by different types of semantic opposition of denotational meaning and often co-occur in the same context (the cars are not fast, they are slow).

As in the case of synonyms, antonyms are minimal naming units, so if the word is polysemantic each of its senses may have its own antonym. Thus the adjective deep in the meaning of 'extending far downward' has the antonym shallow; in the meaning of 'difficult to comprehend' it has the antonym plain, in the meaning of 'high in saturation and low in lightness (of colour)' it has the antonym light.

Usually synonyms have the same antonym (cf: deep and profound both have an antonym shallow). Yet, this is not always the case. Some synonyms do not share the same antonyms (see /Pustejovsky 1995/): rise and ascend, fall and descend are similar in meaning, but fall is not the antonym to ascend, just as rise is not the antonym to descend.

The above examples prove that antonymy, like synohymy, is a lexical rather than conceptual phenomenon. Some concepts may be opposite but their lexemes may not (fall is not the antonym to ascend, large is not the antonym of little though their concepts are opposed).


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